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By Z. Elber. La Salle University.

Patients who see one of these codes on their prescriptions should talk to a pharmacist before using the medications discount hyzaar 50 mg online. A person with a medical problem discount 50mg hyzaar free shipping, such as high blood pressure, might see the generic “C” code on a prescription bottle if the medication could raise his or her blood pressure. Commonly used anatomic orientation terms include the following: anterior The front, as opposed to posterior. For example, posteroanterior From back to front, as opposed when a chest X-ray is taken with the patient’s back to anteroposterior. For example, the foot and leg, with the sole down), as opposed to ascending aorta is the portion of the aorta that supination. For example, the descending aorta is the portion of the aorta that superficial On the surface or shallow, as descends, going downward from the top of the arch opposed to deep. Working at the Lister Institute in London, Funk isolated a substance that prevented nerve inflammation (neuritis) in chickens raised on a diet deficient in that substance. He named the substance “vitamine” because he believed it was necessary to life and it was a chemical amine. The e at the end was later removed when it was recognized that vitamins need not be amines. Vitamins soon became identified, as they were noted to be associated with vitamin deficiency dis- eases. The letters (A, B, C, and so on) were assigned to the vitamins in the order of their discovery. The one exception was vitamin K, which was assigned its K (from Koagulation) by the Danish researcher Henrik Dam. Vitamins are known to play a major role in both health maintenance and the treatment of certain diseases. The classic vitamins are divided into two categories, oil-soluble and water-soluble, based on how they are absorbed with the food we eat. There are nine water-soluble vitamins, thiamine (vitamin B1), riboflavin (vitamin B2), pyridoxine (vitamin B6), cyanocobalamin (vitamin B12), ascorbic acid (vitamin C), biotin, folic acid, niacin, and pantothenic acid. Beta carotene is an antioxidant that protects cells against pyridoxine Vitamin B6. Excessive carotene can tem- vitamin A An oil-soluble vitamin that is also known porarily yellow the skin, an innocuous condition as retinol. Carotene compounds are gradually con- called carotenemia that is commonly seen in infants verted by the body to vitamin A. Vitamin A is found in egg yolk, butter, cream, leafy green vegetables, yellow biotin Vitamin H. Overdose of vitamin A can cause insom- nia, joint pain, fatigue, irritability, headache, and cobalamin Vitamin B12. It is found vitamin B1 Thiamin, a water-soluble vitamin, in leafy green vegetables, liver and other organ which acts as a coenzyme and is essential for a num- meats, and whole grains. Vitamin B1 is lead to slow growth, diarrhea, oral inflammation, a found primarily in liver and yeast, and it is easily decrease in all types of blood cells (pancytopenia), destroyed by cooking. Deficiency of vitamin B1 leads and megaloblastic anemia (anemia with abnormally to beriberi, a disease of the heart and nervous sys- large red blood cells). Vitamin B2 is found primarily in daily is recommend in the form of prenatal multi- liver and yeast, and it is easily destroyed by cooking. Vitamin D is added to many com- is a component of coenzymes that are important in mon dairy products and breads, and it can also be body metabolism. The daily adult skin, vagina, rectum, and mouth, as well as mental requirement is 10 micrograms. It is present largely supplied by the metabolism of vitamin D in the in foods as diverse as poultry, soybeans, yogurt, and body. No naturally occurring disease due to a deficiency of vitamin B5 has been identified, due to vitamin D3 Cholecalciferol, a D vitamin that is the ease of obtaining this vitamin. An experimental needed for proper use of phosphorus, calcium, and deficiency of pantothenic acid has, however, been vitamin A. It plays a steroid-like role in regulating cel- created by administering an antagonist to pantothenic lular proliferation and differentiation. Vitamin B6 is muscle, skin, blood vessel, and organ development found primarily in liver and yeast, and it is easily and function. Deficiency of vitamin B6 nuts, nut and corn oils, wheat germ, liver, sweet pota- leads to inflammation of the skin and mouth, nau- toes, and green leafy vegetables. Deficiency of vitamin B12 also found in yeast, organ meats, legumes, egg yolks, leads to megaloblastic anemia, as can be seen in per- whole grains, and nuts. Vitamin K is normally made min that is important in the synthesis of collagen, within the body by intestinal bacteria, but it is also the framework protein for tissues of the body.

If everyone’s rank on one variable is the opposite of his or her rank on the other variable generic 12.5 mg hyzaar with visa, rS will equal 21 buy 12.5mg hyzaar with visa. With only some degree of consistent pairing of the ranks, rS will be between 0 and ;1. Ranked scores often occur in behavioral research because a variable is difficult to measure quantitatively. Instead we must evaluate participants by asking observers to make subjective judgments that are then used to rank order the participants. For exam- ple, say that we ask two observers to judge how aggressively children behave while playing. Each observer assigns the rank of 1 to the most aggressive child, 2 to the sec- ond-most aggressive child, and so on. Because rS describes the consistency with which rankings match, one use of rS is to determine the extent to which the two observers’ rankings agree. Note: If you have any “tied ranks” (when two or more participants receive the same score on the same variable) you must first adjust them as described in the section “Resolving Tied Ranks” in Chapter 15. The computational formula for the Spearman rank-order correlation coefficient is 61©D22 rS 5 1 2 2 N1N 2 12 The logic of the formula here is similar to that in the previous Pearson formula, ex- cept that rS accommodates the peculiarities of ranks (e. The D in the numerator stands for the difference between the two ranks in each X–Y pair, and N is the number of pairs of ranks. For the column labeled D, either subtract every X from its paired Y or, as shown, every Y from its X. Filling in the formula gives 61©D22 61182 rS 5 1 2 2 5 1 2 N1N 2 12 9181 2 12 In the numerator, 6 times 18 is 108. This tells us that a child receiving a particular rank from one observer tended to receive very close to the same rank from the other observer. Therefore, the data form a rather narrow scatterplot that tends to hug the regression line. To determine r for the following ranks, find the D of For the ranks: S each X–Y pair, and then D2 and N. One important mistake to avoid with all correlation coefficients is called the restriction of range problem. It occurs when we have data in which the range between the lowest and high- est scores on one or both variables is limited. This will produce a correlation coefficient that is smaller than it would be if the range were not restricted. A B We see a different batch of similar Y scores occurring as X increases, producing an elongated, relatively nar- row ellipse that clearly slants upwards. Therefore, the correlation coefficient will be relatively large, and we will correctly conclude that there is a strong linear relationship between these variables. However, say that instead we restricted the range of X when measuring the data, giving us only the scatter- plot located between the lines labeled A and B in Figure 7. Now, we are seeing virtually the same batch of Y scores as these few X scores increase. Therefore, the correlation coefficient from Scatterplot showing these data will be very close to 0, so we will conclude that there is a very weak—if restriction of range in any—linear relationship here. This would be wrong, however, because without us X scores restricting the range, we would have seen that nature actually produces a much stronger relationship. Generally, restriction of range occurs when researchers are too selective when obtaining participants. Thus, if you study the relationship between participants’ high school grades and their subsequent salaries, don’t restrict the range of grades by testing only honor students: Measure all students to get the entire range of grades. Or, if you’re correlating personality types with degree of emotional problems, don’t study only college students. People with severe emotional problems tend not to be in college, so you won’t have their scores. Likewise, any task you give participants should not be too easy (because then everyone scores in a narrow range of very high scores), nor should the task be too difficult (because then everyone obtains virtually the same low score). In all cases, the goal is to allow a wide range of scores to occur on both variables so that you have a complete descrip- tion of the relationship. Later we’ll also see other coeffi- cients that are designed for other types of scores, and you may find additional, ad- vanced coefficients in published research. However, all coefficients are interpreted in the same ways that we have discussed: the coefficient will have an absolute value between 0 and 1, with 0 indicating no relationship and 1 indicating a perfectly con- sistent relationship. In real research, however, a correlation coefficient near ;1 simply does not occur. Recall from Chapter 2 that individual differences and extraneous environmental vari- ables produce inconsistency in behaviors, which results in inconsistent relationships. Chapter Summary 155 Therefore, adjust your expectations: Most research produces coefficients with absolute values in the neighborhood of only. It is the one number that allows you to envision and summarize the important information in a scatterplot.