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Properties such as biochemical reactions methotrexate 2.5 mg cheap, chemical composition cheap methotrexate 2.5 mg on line, cellular structures, genetic characteristics, and immunological features are used in defining a bacterial species. Identifying a species and determining its limits presents the most challenging aspects of biological classification for any type of organism. Monera ( the prokaryotes) Kingdom of Monera Three categories: - Eubacteria Are our common, everyday bacteria, some of which are disease – causing; also the taxon from which mitochondria originated. Distinctively, however, the members of Kingdom Protista are all eukaryotic while the mebers of kingdom Monera are all prokaryotic. Some members of protista are multicellular, however Kingdom protista represents a grab bag, essentially the place where the species are classified when they are not classified as either fungi, animals or plants. Kingdom Fungi Unlike pprotists, the eukaryotic fungi are typically non – aquatic species. They traditionally are nutrients absorbers plus have additional distinctive features. The domain system contains three members 9 ¾ Eukaryotes ( domain Eukarya ) ¾ Eubacteria ( domain Bacteria) ¾ Archaebacteria ( domain Archaea) Viral classification Classification of viruses is not nearly as well developed as the classification of cellular organisms. Today viruses tend to be classified by their chemical, morphological and physiological attributes (e. Binomial nomenclature is not employed to name viruses; instead viruses are named by their common names (e. The distinguishing features between Eukaryotic cell and Prokaryotic cell Features Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell. Cellular element enclosed with in the cell envelope: Mesosomes, ribosomes, nuclear apparatus, polyamies and cytoplasmic granules. Cell wall Multi layered structure and constitutes about 20% of the bacterial dry weight. Young and rapidly growing bacteria has thin cell wall but old and slowly dividing bacteria has thick cell wall. It is composed of N-acetyl Muramic acid and N-acetyl Glucosamine back bones cross linked with peptide chain and pentaglycine bridge. Contains toxic components to host Bacteria with defective cell walls Bacteria with out cell wall can be induced by growth in the presence of antibiotics and a hypertonic environment to prevent lysis. Protoplasts: Derived from Gram-positive bacteria and totally lacking cell walls; unstable and osmotically fragile; produced artificially by lysozyme and hypertonic medium: require hypertonic conditions for maintenance. Spheroplast: Derived from Gram-negative bacteria; retain some residual but non-functional cellwall material; osmotically fragile;produced by growth with penicillin and must be maintained in hypertonic medium. L- forms: Cell wall-deficient forms of bacteria usually produced in the laboratory but sometimes spontaneously formed in the body of patients treated with penicillin; more stable than protoplasts or spheroplasts, they can replicate in ordinary media. Cell membrane Also named as cell membrane or cytoplasmic membrane It is a delicate trilaminar unit membrane. Mesosomes Convoluted invagination of cytoplasmic membrane often at sites of septum formation. Nuclear apparatus Well defined nucleus and nuclear membrane, discrete chromosome and mitotic apparatus are not present in bacteria ; so nuclear region of bacteria is named as nuclear body, nuclear apparatus and nucleoid. Besides nuclear apparatus, bacteria may have extra chromosomal genetic material named as plasmids. Plasmids do not play any role in the normal function of the bacterial cell but may confer certain additional properties(Eg. Virulence, drug resistance) which may facilitate survival and propagation of the micro- organism. Glycocalyx (capsule and slime layer) Capsule is gel firmly adherent to cell envelope. Capsule is composed of polysaccharide and protein(D-Glutamate of Bacillus anthracis) Features of capsule 1. Flagellum It is the organ of locomotion in bacterial cell and consists of thee parts. The basal body The basal body and hook are embedded in the cell surface while the filament is free on the surface of bacterial cell. Pili (fimbriae) It is hair like structure composed of protein (pilin) Two types (Based on function). Sex pili: The structure for transfer of genetic material from the donor to the recipient during the process of conjugation. Spores Resting cells which are capable of surviving under adverse environmental conditions like heat, drying, freezing, action of toxic chemicals and radiation. Classification of bacteria Bacterial classification depends on the following characteristics. Morphology of bacteria When bacteria are visualized under light microscope, the following morphology are seen. Bacilli (singular bacillus): Stick-like bacteria with rounded, tepered, square or swollen ends; with a size measuring 1-10μm in length by 0.

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Which of the following statements regarding Calcitonin is a hormone produced in the medulla of adrenal cortical dysfunction is true? Patients with Cushing’s syndrome usually have calcitonin levels do not greatly influence the serum hyperkalemia calcium discount methotrexate 2.5mg free shipping. Cushing’s syndrome is associated with glucose diagnose medullary thyroid cancer cheap methotrexate 2.5mg with amex, which produces intolerance very high serum levels. Addison’s disease is caused by elevated levels of and abnormal levels have pronounced effects on cortisol carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. Cortisol is a 21-carbon steroid with a dihydroxyacetone group at Chemistry/Correlate clinical and laboratory data/ C17 and hydroxyl group at C11 that account for its Adrenal/2 glucocorticoid potency. Plasma and urinary cortisol measurements are used to diagnose most types of adrenocortical dysfunction. Aldosterone is the principal mineral corticoid made by the adrenals, and corticosterone is the immediate precursor to aldosterone. B Patients with Cushing’s syndrome have elevated levels of cortisol and other adrenal corticosteroids. This causes the characteristic cushingoid appearance that includes obesity, acne, and humpback posture. Addison’s disease results from adrenal hypoplasia and produces the opposite symptoms including hypotension, hyperkalemia, and hypoglycemia. Which of the following statements about cortisol Answers to Questions 22–26 in Cushing’s syndrome is true? A Serum cortisol can be increased by factors such as sensitive test than plasma total cortisol stress, medications, and cortisol-binding protein, and B. Patients with Cushing’s disease show the cortisol level of normal patients will overlap those pronounced diurnal variation in serum cortisol seen in Cushing’s syndrome because of pulse C. When cortisol levels become elevated, cortisol-binding protein concentration cortisol-binding protein becomes saturated, and free D. An elevated serum total cortisol level is (unbound) cortisol is filtered by the glomeruli. Most is diagnostic of Cushing’s syndrome reabsorbed, but a significant amount reaches the urine as free cortisol. Twenty-four–hour urinary free Chemistry/Apply knowledge to identify sources of cortisol avoids the diurnal variation that may affect error/Cortisol/2 plasma free cortisol levels and is a more sensitive test 23. Which of the following conditions is characterized than serum total or free cortisol. C Conn’s syndrome is characterized by hypertension, adenoma, carcinoma, or hyperplasia? Chemistry/Correlate clinical and laboratory data/ Pheochromocytoma is a tumor of chromaffin cells Endocrine/2 (usually adrenal) that produces catecholamines. In which situation is the plasma or 24-hour urinary cortisol not consistent with the clinical 26. In patients with a positive overnight of cases are caused by a deficiency of 21-hydroxylase dexamethasone suppression test blocking conversion of 17-α hydroxyprogesterone C. Precursors of cortisol, usually either 17-α hydroxyprogesterone Chemistry/Apply knowledge to recognize inconsistent or 11-deoxycortisol are increased. This results in results/Adrenal/2 low serum cortisol levels, but high levels of these intermediates (mainly 17-ketogenic steroids). Which test is used to distinguish Cushing’s disease Answers to Questions 27–29 (pituitary Cushing’s) from Cushing’s syndrome caused by adrenal tumors? Which is the most widely used screening test for dexamethasone suppression test is also used. Overnight low-dose dexamethasone 50% suppression of cortisol release after receiving an suppression test 8-mg dose of dexamethasone, but patients with B. A Dexamethasone is a synthetic corticosteroid that diagnosis of Cushing’s disease (pituitary exhibits 30-fold greater negative feedback on the Cushing’s)? Low-dose dexamethasone suppression 1 mg of the drug is given to a patient at 11 p. Therefore, a normal corticotropin-releasing hormone stimulation response to dexamethasone excludes Cushing’s syndrome with a sensitivity of about 98%. D Although dexamethasone suppression tests have a high sensitivity, some patients without Cushing’s syndrome have indeterminate results (e. Samples are drawn from the sinuses draining the pituitary gland and from the peripheral blood. Which of the following statements about the Answers to Questions 30–33 diagnosis of Addison’s disease is true?

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