Motilium

By J. Yugul. University of Alabama. 2018.

In the posterior (dorsal) cavity motilium 10 mg on-line, the cranial cavity houses the brain purchase motilium 10 mg fast delivery, and the spinal cavity (or vertebral cavity) encloses the spinal cord. Just as the brain and spinal cord make up a continuous, uninterrupted structure, the cranial and spinal cavities that house them are also continuous. The brain and spinal cord are protected by the bones of the skull and vertebral column and by cerebrospinal fluid, a colorless fluid produced by the brain, which cushions the brain and spinal cord within the posterior (dorsal) cavity. The anterior (ventral) cavity has two main subdivisions: the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity (see Figure 1. The thoracic cavity is the more superior subdivision of the anterior cavity, and it is enclosed by the rib cage. The diaphragm forms the floor of the thoracic cavity and separates it from the more inferior abdominopelvic cavity. Although no membrane physically divides the abdominopelvic cavity, it can be useful to distinguish between the abdominal cavity, the division that houses the digestive organs, and the pelvic cavity, the division that houses the organs of reproduction. Abdominal Regions and Quadrants To promote clear communication, for instance about the location of a patient’s abdominal pain or a suspicious mass, health care providers typically divide up the cavity into either nine regions or four quadrants (Figure 1. The more detailed regional approach subdivides the cavity with one horizontal line immediately inferior to the ribs and one immediately superior to the pelvis, and two vertical lines drawn as if dropped from the midpoint of each clavicle (collarbone). The simpler quadrants approach, which is more commonly used in medicine, subdivides the cavity with one horizontal and one vertical line that intersect at the patient’s umbilicus (navel). Membranes of the Anterior (Ventral) Body Cavity A serous membrane (also referred to a serosa) is one of the thin membranes that cover the walls and organs in the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities. The parietal layers of the membranes line the walls of the body cavity (pariet- refers to a cavity wall). Between the parietal and visceral layers is a very thin, fluid-filled serous space, or cavity (Figure 1. The pleura is the serous membrane that surrounds the lungs in the pleural cavity; the pericardium is the serous membrane that surrounds the heart in the pericardial cavity; and the peritoneum is the serous membrane that surrounds several organs in the abdominopelvic cavity. The serous membranes form fluid-filled sacs, or cavities, that are meant to cushion and reduce friction on internal organs when they move, such as when the lungs inflate or the heart beats. Both the parietal and visceral serosa secrete the thin, slippery serous fluid located within the serous cavities. The peritoneal cavity reduces friction between the This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx. Therefore, serous membranes provide additional protection to the viscera they enclose by reducing friction that could lead to inflammation of the organs. An inability to control bleeding, infection, and pain made surgeries infrequent, and those that were performed—such as wound suturing, amputations, tooth and tumor removals, skull drilling, and cesarean births—did not greatly advance knowledge about internal anatomy. Theories about the function of the body and about disease were therefore largely based on external observations and imagination. During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, however, the detailed anatomical drawings of Italian artist and anatomist Leonardo da Vinci and Flemish anatomist Andreas Vesalius were published, and interest in human anatomy began to increase. Medical schools began to teach anatomy using human dissection; although some resorted to grave robbing to obtain corpses. Laws were eventually passed that enabled students to dissect the corpses of criminals and those who donated their bodies for research. Still, it was not until the late nineteenth century that medical researchers discovered non-surgical methods to look inside the living body. X-Rays German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen (1845–1923) was experimenting with electrical current when he discovered that a mysterious and invisible “ray” would pass through his flesh but leave an outline of his bones on a screen coated with a metal compound. In 1895, Röntgen made the first durable record of the internal parts of a living human: an “X-ray” image (as it came to be called) of his wife’s hand. Scientists around the world quickly began their own experiments with X-rays, and by 1900, X-rays were widely used to detect a variety of injuries and diseases. The X-ray is a form of high energy electromagnetic radiation with a short wavelength capable of penetrating solids and ionizing gases. As they are used in medicine, X-rays are emitted from an X-ray machine and directed toward a specially treated metallic plate placed behind the patient’s body. X-rays are slightly impeded by soft tissues, which show up as gray on the X-ray plate, whereas hard tissues, such as bone, largely block the rays, producing a light-toned “shadow. Like many forms of high energy radiation, however, X-rays are capable of damaging cells and initiating changes that can lead to cancer. This danger of excessive exposure to X-rays was not fully appreciated for many years after their widespread use. Although often supplanted by more sophisticated imaging techniques, the X-ray remains a “workhorse” in medical imaging, especially for viewing fractures and for dentistry. The disadvantage of irradiation to the patient and the operator is now attenuated by proper shielding and by limiting exposure. Modern Medical Imaging X-rays can depict a two-dimensional image of a body region, and only from a single angle. In contrast, more recent medical imaging technologies produce data that is integrated and analyzed by computers to produce three-dimensional images or images that reveal aspects of body functioning.

Female sex hormones can also be used to control some forms of recurrent miscarriage and prolong a pregnancy until a baby is mature enough to deliver order motilium 10 mg without prescription, to control a disease called endometriosis motilium 10 mg with visa, and to treat certain types of cancer. The female sex hormone oestrogen can be given as a tablet, patch, vaginal or skin cream, implantable capsule that is placed under the skin or as an injection. If the woman has not had a hysterectomy, she will need to take progestogen as a pill or patch in a cyclical manner every month or two. This may result in a bleed similar to that of a natural menstrual period (but usually much lighter), but gives the added benefit of protecting the woman against uterine cancer. The common sex hormones fall into the categories of oestrogens, progestogens and androgens (male sex hormones). They are used in contraceptive pills, for hormone replacement therapy during and after the menopause, and are usually combined with a progestogen unless the woman has had a hysterectomy. Side effects may include abnormal menstrual bleeding, vaginal thrush, nausea, fluid retention, breast tenderness, bloating and skin pigmentation. They should not be used in pregnancy, breastfeeding, children, and patients with liver diseases or a bad history of blood clots. They are used to control abnormal menstrual bleeds, endometriosis, for preventive contraception, “morning-after” contraception, hormone replacement therapy and premenstrual tension. Medroxyprogesterone is an injectable progesterone that may be used for contraception, to treat certain types of cancer and endometriosis. Side effects include the cessation of menstrual periods, breakthrough vaginal bleeding, headaches, and possibly a prolonged contraceptive action (up to 15 months). Danazol (Danocrine) is a special type of sex hormone that acts against oestrogen and is used to treat endometriosis, severe menstrual period pain and severe breast pain. Side effects are common and may include acne, weight gain, excess body hair, retained fluid, dry vagina, sweats and the development of a deep voice. It must never be used in pregnancy, or in patients with pelvic infection, liver disease, blood clots or heart failure. They are used to treat conditions such as failure of puberty to occur, pituitary gland dysfunction, impotence, decreased libido (in both sexes), and male osteoporosis. Synthetic testosterones include fluoxymestrone (Halotestin), mesterolone (Proviron), and oxandrolone (Lonavar). Side effects may include penis enlargement, infertility, fluid retention, increased body hair and nausea in men, and if used in women irregular periods, deep voice and an enlarged clitoris may develop. It is used to treat excess body hair, severe acne and loss of scalp hair in women, and prostate cancer in men. Side effects may include reduced libido, tiredness, nausea, weight increase and irregular menstrual periods. Some women find that their sex drive decreases at certain stages of pregnancy, while other women are the opposite. A man may also be affected, being more attracted to his pregnant wife, or deterred by the new life within her. Sadly, this is just what cigarette smoking does, but the sale of cigarettes is permitted, cigarettes have been heavily promoted by advertising, and large profits are made from their sale. Over the centuries, since the introduction of tobacco to Europe in the 1590s, more and more people have become addicted to nicotine. Women started smoking in public only during the First World War, and the habit reached a peak during the Second World War when 75% of the adult population of most western countries were smokers. Vast factories poured out billions of cigarettes that were made, packed, wrapped and boxed untouched by human hand. Multinational tobacco corporations gained enormous profits, and became powerful friends of government as tax payers and revenue earners. There was a long delay, and more than half the smokers escaped, but there was little doubt about it - for many people smoking was lethal. Nicotine is a very powerful and toxic substance, which acts initially as a stimulant on the central nervous system, but this effect is followed by a reduction of brain and nervous system activity. Nicotine causes narrowing of blood vessels, which then affects the circulation and causes blood pressure to rise. This is why regular absorption of nicotine through smoking can cause chronic heart problems and increases the possibility of heart attacks. Tar released in the form of particles in the smoke is the main cause of lung and throat cancer in smokers and also aggravates bronchial and respiratory disease. Smoking is known to increase the incidence of a wide range of medical problems including:- lung cancer heart attacks angina emphysema chronic bronchitis asthma cancer of the cervix depression strokes high blood pressure bladder cancer throat cancer tongue cancer oesophageal cancer kidney cancer pancreatic cancer small and sicker babies of pregnant women sinusitis viral and bacterial infections of the throat and lungs (eg. Many of the effects above may affect not only the smoker, but also those who live and work with smokers (passive smokers). It contributes to more deaths than alcohol and illicit drugs together, and costs the economies of these countries millions of dollars a year.

Superficial fungal infection of the skin Superficial fungal infections of the skin are one of the most common dermatologic conditions seen in clinical practice cheap motilium 10 mg visa. However generic 10mg motilium with visa, making the correct diagnosis can be difficult, because these infections can have an atypical presentation or be confused with similar-appearing conditions. Superficial fungal infections can be divided into three broad categories: dermatophytic infections, Pityriasis versicolor and cutaneous candidasis 3. Dermatophytes Specifically Trichophyton, Epidermophyton and Microsporum species, are responsible for most superficial fungal infections. Dividing infections into the body region most often affected can help in identification of the problem. Tinea Capitis Tinea capitis is a dermatophytic infection of the head and scalp, usually found in infants, children, and young adolescents. Around puberty, sebum production by sebaceous glands becomes active, and as a result, it tends to disappear. Commonest presentation is scaly patches on the scalp with variable degree of hair loss and generalized scaling that resembles seborrhic dermatitis may occur on the scalp. An unusual scaling reaction known as favus may give the scalp a waxy or doughy appearance with thick crusted areas. Griseofulvin in a dose of 10-20 mg per kg for six weeks to 8weeks is the first-line treatment of Tinea capitis. Lesions are round, scaly patches that have a well defined, enlarging border and a relatively clear central portion. Itching is variable and not diagnostic Tinea corporis can assume a giant size (Tinea incognito) when steroids are applied for cosmetic reasons or as a result of miss diagnosis. Tinea pedis Tinea pedis is fungal infection of the feet and is usually related to sweating and warmth, and use of occlusive footwear. It may also present with a classic pattern on the dorsal surface of the foot or as chronic dry, scaly hyperkeratosis of the soles and heels. Tinea versicolor (Pityriasis versicolor) Versicolor versicolor is a common, benign, superficial cutaneous (stratum corneum) fungal infection at the level of stratum corneum characterized by hypo pigmented or hyperpigmented macules and patches with faint scale on the chest and the back. Etiology: Malassezia furfur (Pityrosporon ovale,) M furfur is a member of normal flora of the skin found in 18% of infants and 90-100% of adults. Predisposing factors include - genetic predisposition, warm, humid environments, excessive sweating, immunosuppression, malnutrition, and Cushing disease. Treatment Patients should be informed that it is caused by a normal flora of the skin hence it is not transmitted and any skin color alterations resolve within 1-2 months after treatment. Effective topical agents include: Sodium thiosulphate solution, selenium sulfide and azole, ciclopiroxolamine, and allylamine antifungals. Weekly applications of any of the topical agents for the following few months may help prevent recurrence. Ketoconazole 200-mg daily for 10-days and as a single-dose 400-mg treatment, have comparative results. Oral therapy does not prevent the high rate of recurrence, unless repeated on an intermittent basis throughout the year. Candidiasis Candida infections caused by yeast-like fungi Candida albicans commonly occur in moist, flexural sites. Under certain conditions, they can become so numerous that they cause infections, particularly in warm and moist areas. Pruritic rash that begins with vesiculopustules, which enlarge and rupture, causing maceration and fissuring. Paronychia and onychomycosis Frequently, paronychia and onychomycosis are associated with immersion of the hands in water. Patients present with a painful and erythematous area around and underneath the nail and nail bed, warm, glistening, tense, and tender. There is secondary nail thickening, ridging, discoloration, and occasional nail loss in chronic cases. Physical examination reveals a diffuse erythema and white patches that appear on the surfaces of the buccal mucosa, throat, tongue, and gums. The presence of retrosternal pain, epigastric pain, nausea, and vomiting may suggest esophageal candidiasis Vulvovaginal candidiasis: This is the second most common cause of vaginitis. A patch resembling thrush appears on the glans and may spread to the thighs, gluteal folds, buttocks, and scrotum. Treatment Candida intertrigo - Topical azoles and polyenes, including clotrimazole, miconazole, and nystatin, are effective. Paronychia - the most important intervention is drainage followed by oral antifungal therapy with either ketoconazole, fluconazole or itraconazole. Single daily dose of itraconazole taken for 3-6 months or a pulsed-dose regimen that requires a slightly higher dose daily for 7 days, followed by 3 weeks off therapy.

Factors Influencing the Rate of Chemical Reactions If you pour vinegar into baking soda generic motilium 10mg without a prescription, the reaction is instantaneous 10 mg motilium with visa; the concoction will bubble and fizz. Properties of the Reactants If chemical reactions are to occur quickly, the atoms in the reactants have to have easy access to one another. Among other things, chewing increases the surface area of the food so that digestive chemicals can more easily get at it. As a general rule, gases tend to react faster than liquids or solids, again because it takes energy to separate particles of a substance, and gases by definition already have space between their particles. Similarly, the larger the molecule, the greater the number of total bonds, so reactions involving smaller molecules, with fewer total bonds, would be expected to proceed faster. Reactions that involve highly reactive elements like hydrogen proceed more quickly than reactions that involve less reactive elements. The higher the temperature, the faster the particles move, and the more likely they are to come in contact and react. But as more and more people get up to dance—especially if the music is fast—collisions are likely to occur. It is the same with chemical reactions: the more particles present within a given space, the more likely those particles are to bump into one another. This means that chemists can speed up chemical reactions not only by increasing the concentration of particles—the number of particles in the space—but also by decreasing the volume of the space, which would correspondingly increase the pressure. If there were 100 dancers in that club, and the manager abruptly moved the party to a room half the size, the concentration of the dancers would double in the new space, and the likelihood of collisions would increase accordingly. Enzymes and Other Catalysts For two chemicals in nature to react with each other they first have to come into contact, and this occurs through random collisions. Because heat helps increase the kinetic energy of atoms, ions, and molecules, it promotes their collision. But in the body, extremely high heat—such as a very high fever—can damage body cells and be life-threatening. On the other hand, normal body temperature is not high enough to promote the chemical reactions that sustain life. In chemistry, a catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing any change. They help increase the rate and force at which atoms, ions, and molecules collide, thereby increasing the probability that their valence shell electrons will interact. Like all catalysts, enzymes work by lowering the level of energy that needs to be invested in a chemical reaction. A chemical reaction’s activation energy is the “threshold” level of energy needed to break the bonds in the reactants. Without an enzyme to act as a catalyst, a much larger investment of energy is needed to ignite a chemical reaction (Figure 2. This section of the chapter narrows the focus to the chemistry of human life; that is, the compounds important for the body’s structure and function. Organic compounds are synthesized via covalent bonds within living organisms, including the human body. You will soon discover how these two elements combine in the foods you eat, in the compounds that make up your body structure, and in the chemicals that fuel your functioning. The following section examines the three groups of inorganic compounds essential to life: water, salts, acids, and bases. Just as oil lubricates the hinge on a door, water in synovial fluid lubricates the actions of body joints, and water in pleural fluid helps the lungs expand and recoil with breathing. Watery fluids help keep food flowing through the digestive tract, and ensure that the movement of adjacent abdominal organs is friction free. Water also protects cells and organs from physical trauma, cushioning the brain within the skull, for example, and protecting the delicate nerve tissue of the eyes. Water as a Heat Sink A heat sink is a substance or object that absorbs and dissipates heat but does not experience a corresponding increase in temperature. In the body, water absorbs the heat generated by chemical reactions without greatly increasing in temperature. Moreover, when the environmental temperature soars, the water stored in the body helps keep the body cool. This cooling effect happens as warm blood from the body’s core flows to the blood vessels just under the skin and is transferred to the environment. As the water evaporates into the air, it carries away heat, and then the cooler blood from the periphery circulates back to the body core. Water as a Component of Liquid Mixtures A mixture is a combination of two or more substances, each of which maintains its own chemical identity. In other words, the constituent substances are not chemically bonded into a new, larger chemical compound. The concept is easy to imagine if you think of powdery substances such as flour and sugar; when you stir them together in a bowl, they obviously do not bond to form a new compound. The room air you breathe is a gaseous mixture, containing three discrete elements—nitrogen, oxygen, and argon—and one compound, carbon dioxide. An important characteristic of solutions is that they are homogeneous; that is, the solute molecules are distributed evenly throughout the solution.